Utilizing pedestrian mobility to optimize last-mile freight delivery in urban areas

This paper introduces a public transport (PT)-based pedestrian crowdshipping framework aimed at enhancing the sustainability of last-mile delivery in urban areas. Unlike conventional models that rely solely on PT users, the proposed approach incorporates both transit passengers and nearby non-PT pedestrians, allowing individuals to declare their availability for participation. A mixed-integer optimization model is developed to assign parcels to PT access points and subsequently deliver them to parcel lockers via pedestrian couriers. The framework also explores the use of non-cash incentives to motivate participation among pedestrians. The results indicate that the pedestrian-based delivery approach remains reliable under slight and moderate adverse weather conditions. These findings underscore the potential of integrating pedestrian mobility into urban logistics to improve delivery coverage, efficiency, and reliability.